This study examines factors influencing the quality of education in Indonesia, with a focus on students’ performance in national assessments (Asesmen Nasional – AN and Asesmen Kompetensi Madrasah Indonesia – AKMI). Employing a mixed methods approach, the research combines quantitative analysis of 2023 AN and AKMI data with qualitative insights from case studies conducted in Magelang district (Central Java) and Maros district (South Sulawesi). The study also explores disparities in learning outcomes between public and private schools and madrasahs, as well as gender-based differences, identifying key contributors to these gaps. An analysis of AN data reveals that the implementation of a student-centred national curriculum, diverse representation of teachers, parental engagement, and a positive school environment are key factors influencing learning achievement. The availability of libraries and internet access in schools and madrasahs has varying impacts on student learning outcomes, depending on the educational context, showing positive correlations in some settings, while appearing less significant in others. Diversity in teacher characteristics has a high impact on learning achievement, highlighting the importance of managing the diverse needs and experience of teachers in Indonesia. A balanced approach to teacher development and support is crucial through sustained collaborative learning and knowledge sharing, which can be promoted through the school or madrasah learning community approach. Innovative teaching practices negatively correlated with literacy and numeracy scores but positively correlated with students’ creative thinking and critical reasoning. This contrast may stem from limited classroom implementation and tech-focused interpretation hindering its effectiveness in strengthening foundational skills. A safe and inclusive school and madrasah climate is positively associated with student academic performance across all educational levels. Characteristics of such a school environment, which includes effective classroom management, positive discipline, absence of bullying, a positive attitude toward disabilities, and disability services, all showed positive correlations with students’ achievement across all educational levels. Qualitative findings also highlighted the importance of effective school leadership. Achievement gaps in literacy, numeracy, and 21st century skills between public and private schools and madrasahs stem from differences in teacher profiles, school characteristics and transformation efforts. Addressing these key disparities can foster more equitable learning outcomes and narrow achievement gaps between public and private across educational settings. Overall, the findings underscore the need for context-specific interventions targeting various factors to improve the quality of education in Indonesia.

Suggested Citation

UNICEF (2025) “Examining challenges and opportunities to improve the quality of education in Indonesia”